Emblem of "Gladio", Italian
branch of the NATO "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations. The motto means "In silence I preserve
freedom".
Operation Gladio (Italian:
Operazione Gladio) is the codename for a clandestine
NATO "stay-behind"
operation in Italy
after World
War II. Its purpose was to continue anti-communist
actions in the event of a shift to a Communist party led government. Although
Gladio specifically refers to the Italian branch of the NATO stay-behind
organizations, "Operation Gladio" is used as an informal name for all
stay-behind organizations, sometimes called "Super NATO". The name Gladio is the Italian
form of gladius,
a type of Roman shortsword.[1]
Operating
in many NATO and even some neutral countries,[2]
Gladio was part of a series of national operations first coordinated by the Clandestine
Committee of the Western Union (CCWU), founded in 1948. After the creation
of NATO in 1949, the CCWU was integrated into the Clandestine
Planning Committee (CPC), founded in 1951 and overseen by SHAPE (Supreme
Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe), transferred to Belgium after France’s
official withdrawal from NATO's Military Committee in 1966 — which was not
followed by the dissolution of the French stay-behind paramilitary
movements.
The role
of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in
sponsoring Gladio and the extent of its activities during the Cold War era,
and its relationship to right-wing terrorist attacks perpetrated in Italy during the "Years of Lead" (late 1960s to
early 1980s) and other similar clandestine operations is the subject of ongoing
debate and investigation. Italy, Switzerland and Belgium have had parliamentary
inquiries into the matter.[3]
The
origin of Gladio can be traced to the so-called "secret anti-Communist
NATO protocols", which were allegedly protocols
committing the secret services of NATO member states to work to prevent communist
parties from coming to power in Western Europe
.
According to the Italian researcher Mario Coglitore,
the protocols required member states to guarantee alignment with the Western
block "by any means".
According to US journalist Arthur Rowse,
a secret clause exists in the North Atlantic Treaty requiring candidate
countries, before joining NATO, to establish clandestine citizen cadres
standing ready to eliminate communist cells during any national emergency. These
clandestine cadres were to be controlled by the country's respective security
services.[4]
[edit] General stay-behind structure
Emblem of NATO's
"stay-behind" paramilitary organizations.
After
World War II, the UK and the US decided to create "stay-behind" paramilitary
organizations, with the official aim of countering a possible Soviet
invasion through sabotage and guerrilla
warfare behind enemy lines. Arms caches were hidden, escape routes
prepared, and loyal members recruited: i.e., mainly hardline anticommunists,
including many ex-Nazis
or former fascists, whether in Italy or in other European countries. In
Germany, for example, Gladio had as a central focus the Gehlen Org — also involved in ODESSA
"ratlines" — named after Reinhard Gehlen who would become
West Germany's first head of intelligence, while the predominantly Italian P2
Masonic lodge was composed of many members of the neofascist
Italian Social Movement (MSI), including Licio Gelli. Its clandestine
"cells" were to stay behind (hence the name) in enemy controlled
territory and to act as resistance movements, conducting sabotage,
guerrilla warfare and assassinations.
However,
Italian Gladio was more far reaching. "A briefing minute of June 1, 1959,
reveals Gladio was built around 'internal subversion'. It was to play 'a
determining role... not only on the general policy level of warfare, but also
in the politics of emergency'. In the 1970s, with communist electoral support
growing and other leftists looking menacing, the establishment turned to the
'Strategy of Tension' ... with Gladio eager to be involved."[5]
CIA
director Allen Dulles was one of the key people in instituting
Operation Gladio, and most of Gladio’s operations were financed by the CIA.[citation
needed] The anti-communist networks, which were
present in all of Europe, including in neutral countries like Sweden and
Switzerland, were partly funded by the CIA.[6]
Some went as far as claiming that Christian Democrat (Democrazia Cristiana) leader Aldo Moro
had been the "founder of (Italian) Gladio".[7]
However, whether these allegations are correct or not, his murder in 1978 put
an end to the “historic compromise” (sharing of power) attempt
between the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the Christian Democrats (DC), thus
accomplishing one of the alleged objectives of the strategy of tension.
Operating
in all of NATO and even in some neutral countries such as Spain before its 1982
admission to NATO, Gladio was first coordinated by the Clandestine Committee of
the Western Union (CCWU), founded in 1948. After the creation of NATO in 1949,
the CCWU was integrated into the "Clandestine Planning Committee"
(CPC), founded in 1951 and overseen by the SHAPE (Supreme
Headquarters Allied Powers Europe), transferred to Belgium after France’s
official retreat from NATO — which was not followed by the dissolution of the
French stay-behind paramilitary movements.
Ganser alleges that:[4]
Next to
the CPC, a second secret army command center, labeled Allied Clandestine
Committee (ACC), was set up in 1957 on the orders of NATO's Supreme Allied Commander in Europe
(SACEUR). This military structure provided for significant US leverage over the
secret stay-behind networks in Western Europe as the SACEUR, throughout NATO's
history, has traditionally been a US General who reports to the Pentagon in
Washington and is based in NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe
(SHAPE) in Mons, Belgium. The ACC's duties included elaborating on the
directives of the network, developing its clandestine capability, and
organizing bases in Britain and the United States. In wartime, it was to plan
stay-behind operations in conjunction with SHAPE. According to former CIA
director William Colby, it was 'a major program'.
Coordinated
by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), {the secret armies} were run
by the European military secret services in close cooperation with the US
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the British foreign secret service Secret Intelligence Service (SIS, also
MI6). Trained together with US Green Berets
and British Special Air Service (SAS), these clandestine
NATO soldiers, armed with underground arms-caches, prepared against a potential
Soviet invasion and occupation of Western Europe, as well as the coming to
power of communist parties. The clandestine international network covered the
European NATO membership, including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece,
Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, and Turkey, as well as
the neutral European countries of Austria, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland.
The
existence of these clandestine NATO armies remained a closely guarded secret
throughout the Cold War until 1990, when the first branch of the international
network was discovered in Italy. It was code-named Gladio, the Italian word for a short double-edged sword [gladius
].
While the press said that the NATO secret armies were 'the best-kept, and most
damaging, political-military secret since World War II', the Italian
government, amidst sharp public criticism, promised to close down the secret
army. Italy insisted identical clandestine armies had also existed in all other
countries of Western Europe. This allegation proved correct and subsequent
research found that in Belgium, the secret NATO army was code-named SDRA8, in
Denmark Absalon, in Germany TD BJD, in Greece LOK, in Luxemburg Stay-Behind, in
the Netherlands I&O, in Norway ROC, in Portugal Aginter, in Switzerland
P26, in Turkey Ozel Harp Dairesi, In Sweden AGAG (Aktions Gruppen Arla
Gryning), and in Austria OWSGV. However, the code names of the secret armies in
France, Finland and Spain remain unknown.
Upon
learning of the discovery, the parliament of the European Union
(EU) drafted a resolution sharply criticizing the fact (...) Yet only Italy,
Belgium and Switzerland carried out parliamentary investigations, while the
administration of President George H. W. Bush
refused to comment, being in the midst of preparations for war against Saddam Hussein
in the Persian Gulf, and fearing potential damages to the military alliance.
If
Gladio was effectively "the best-kept, and most damaging,
political-military secret since World War II",[8]
it must be underlined, however, that on several occasions, arms caches were
discovered and stay-behind paramilitary organizations officially dissolved –
only to be created again. But it was not until the 1990s that the full
international scope of the program was disclosed to public knowledge. Giulio
Andreotti, the main character of Italy’s post-World War II political life, was
described by Aldo Moro to his captors as "too close to NATO", Moro
thus advising them to be wary. Indeed, before Andreotti’s 1990 acknowledgement
of Gladio’s existence, he had "unequivocally" denied it in 1974, and
then in 1978 to judges investigating the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing. And even
in 1990, "Testimonies collected by the two men (judges Felice Casson
and Carlo Mastelloni investigating the 1972 Peteano fascist car bomb) and by
the Commission on Terrorism on Rome, and inquiries by The Guardian,
indicate that Gladio was involved in activities which do not square with
Andreotti's account. Links between Gladio, Italian secret services bosses and
the notorious P2 Masonic lodge are manifold (...) In the year that Andreotti
denied Gladio’s existence, the P2 treasurer, General Siro Rosetti, gave a
generous account of 'a secret security structure made up of civilians, parallel
to the armed forces' There are also overlaps between senior Gladio personnel
and the committee of military men, Rosa dei Venti
(Wind Rose), which tried to stage a coup in 1970.”[5]
On
November 22, 1990, the European
Parliament passed a resolution condemning Gladio,
requesting full investigations – which have yet to be done – and total
dismantlement of these paramilitary structures. In 2005,the first academic
examination of Gladio was published by Swiss historian Daniele Ganser. Mr.
Ganser, as of 2010, is a Senior Researcher at the Center for Security Studies
at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich,
Switzerland.
His book, NATO's Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western
Europe, is a documented study of how Gladio operated.
British
journalist Philip Willan, who, by 2010, was writing for the UK Guardian and Observer
newspapers, described in the book, Puppetmasters:
The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy, how the US intelligence
services used their relationship with the P2 Masonic lodge to prop up Christian
Democrat governments, undermining the growing political influence of the
Italian Communist Party.
The
1990 European resolution condemned "the existence for 40 years of a
clandestine parallel intelligence" as well as "armed operations
organization in several Member States of the Community", which
"escaped all democratic
controls and has been run by the secret services of the states concerned in
collaboration with NATO." Denouncing the "danger that such clandestine
network may have interfered illegally in the internal political affairs of
Member States or may still do so," especially before the fact that
"in certain Member States military secret services (or uncontrolled
branches thereof) were involved in serious cases of terrorism
and crime," the Parliament demanded a "a full investigation into the
nature, structure, aims and all other aspects of these clandestine
organizations or any splinter groups, their use for illegal interference in the
internal political affairs of the countries concerned, the problem of terrorism
in Europe and the possible collusion of the secret services of Member States or
third countries." Furthermore, the resolution protested "vigorously
at the assumption by certain US military personnel at SHAPE and in NATO of the
right to encourage the establishment in Europe of a clandestine intelligence
and operation network," asking "the Member States to dismantle all
clandestine military and paramilitary networks" and to "draw up a
complete list of organizations active in this field, and at the same time to
monitor their links with the respective state intelligence services and their
links, if any, with terrorist action groups and/or other illegal
practices." Finally, the Parliament called "on its competent
committee to consider holding a hearing in order to clarify the role and impact
of the 'Gladio' organization and any similar bodies," and instructed
"its President to forward this resolution to the Commission, the Council,
the Secretary-General of NATO, the governments of the Member States and the
United States Government."
The
first academic examination of Gladio was published in 2005 by Swiss historian Daniele Ganser.
Mr. Ganser is currently a Senior Researcher at the Center for Security Studies
at the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland. His book, NATO's
Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe, Gladio has
been accused of trying to influence policies through the means of "false flag"
operations: a 2000 Italian Parliamentary Commission report from the Olive Tree
left-wing coalition concluded that the strategy of
tension used by Gladio had been supported by the
United States to "stop the PCI (Italian Communist Party), and to a certain
degree also the PSI
(Italian Socialist Party), from reaching executive power in the country".
Propaganda Due
(also known as P2), a quasi-freemasonic organization, whose existence was
discovered in 1981, was said closely linked to Gladio[citation
needed].
P2
was outlawed and disbanded in 1981, in the wake of the Banco Ambrosiano
scandal, which was linked to the Mafia and to the Vatican Bank.
Its Grand Master, Licio Gelli, was involved in most of Italy’s scandals in the
last three decades of the 20th century: Banco Ambrosiano’s crash; Tangentopoli,
which gave rise to the Mani pulite
("Clean hands") anticorruption operation in the 1990s; the kidnapping and the
murder of Aldo Moro in 1978 – the head of the secret
services at the time, accused of negligence, was a piduista (P2 member). Licio Gelli has often said he was a
friend of Argentine President Juan Perón.
In any case, some important figures of his circle were discovered to be
piduista, such as José López Rega,
founder of the infamous anticommunist organization Triple
A and provisional president Raúl Alberto
Lastiri. Some members of later Jorge Videla’s
dictatorship were part of the P2 as well, such as Admiral Emilio Massera
and General Guillermo Suárez
Mason. The Vatican Bank was also accused of funneling
covert US funds for the Solidarnosc
trade union movement in Poland and the Contras
in Nicaragua.[9]
Furthermore,
Gladio has been linked to other events, such as Operation Condor[10][improper
synthesis?] and the
1969 killing of anticolonialist/independentist Mozambican leader Eduardo Mondlane
by Aginter Press, the Portuguese
"stay-behind" secret army, headed by Yves Guérin-Sérac
- the allegation on Mondlane's death is disputed, with several sources stating
that FRELIMO
guerrilla leader Eduardo Mondlane was killed in a struggle for power within
FRELIMO. In 1995, Attorney General Giovanni Salvi accused the Italian secret
services of having manipulated proofs of the Chilean secret police’s (DINA)
involvement in the 1975 terrorist attack on former Chilean Vice-President Bernardo Leighton
in Rome. A similar mode of operation can also be recognized in various Cold War
events, for example between the June 20, 1973 Ezeiza
massacre in Buenos Aires (Argentina), the 1976 Montejurra
massacre in Spain and the 1977 Taksim Square massacre
in Istanbul (Turkey).
After
Giulio Andreotti's revelations and the disestablishment of Gladio, the last
meeting of the "Allied Clandestine Committee" (ACC), was held
according to the Italian Prime minister on October 23 and 24, 1990. Despite
this, various events have raised concerns about "stay-behind" armies
still being in place. In 1996, the Belgian newspaper Le Soir
revealed the existence of a racist plan operated by the military intelligence
agencies. In 1999, Switzerland was suspected of again creating a clandestine
paramilitary structure, allegedly to replace the former P26 and P27 (the Swiss
branches of Gladio). Furthermore, in 2005, the Italian press revealed the
existence of the Department of
Anti-terrorism Strategic Studies (DSSA), accused of
being "another Gladio".
[edit] Gladio's strategy of
tension and internal subversion operations
NATO's
"stay-behind" organizations were never called upon to resist a Soviet
invasion, but their structures continued to exist after the collapse of the
Soviet Union. Internal subversion and "false flag"
operations were explicitly considered by the CIA and stay-behind
paramilitaries. According to a November 13, 1990 Reuters
cable,[11]
"André Moyen – a former member of the Belgian military security service
and of the [stay-behind] network – said Gladio was not just anti-Communist but
was for fighting subversion in general. He added that his predecessor had given
Gladio 142 million francs ($4.6 millions) to buy new radio equipment."[12]
Ganser alleges that on various occasions, stay-behind movements became linked
to right-wing
terrorism, crime and attempted coups d'état:[4]
"Prudent
Precaution or Source of Terror?" the international press pointedly asked
when the secret stay-behind armies of NATO were discovered across Western
Europe in late 1990. After more than ten years of research, the answer is now
clear: both. The overview aboves shows that based on the experiences of World
War II, all countries of Western Europe, with the support of NATO, the CIA, and
MI6, had set up stay-behind armies as precaution against a potential Soviet
invasion. While the safety networks and the integrity of the majority of the
secret soldiers should not be criticized in hindsight after the collapse of the
Soviet Union, very disturbing questions do arise with respect to reported links
to terrorism.
There
exist large differences among the European countries, and each case must be
analyzed individually in further detail. As of now, the evidence suggests the
secret armies in the seven countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Luxemburg,
Switzerland, Austria, and the Netherlands, focused exclusively on their
stay-behind function and were not linked to terrorism. However, links to
terrorism have been either confirmed or claimed in the nine countries, Italy,
Ireland,[citation
needed] Turkey, Germany,
France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Sweden, demanding further investigation.
According
to Daniele Ganser, only Italy, Belgium and Switzerland carried on parliamentary
investigations, while the prosecution of various "black terrorists" (terrorismo nero, neofascist terrorism) in
Italy was difficult.
A
1990 article from The Guardian
featured the following quote from judge Libero Mancuso:[13]
On
the eve of the 1980
Bologna bombing anniversary, Liberato [sic]
Mancuso, the Bologna judge who had led the investigation and secured the
initial convictions [of the Bologna bombers] broke six months of silence:
"It is now understood among those engaged in the matter of democratic
rights that we are isolated, and the objects of a campaign of aggression. This
is what has happened to the commission into the P2, and to the magistrates. The
personal risks to us are small in comparison to this offensive of denigration,
which attempts to discredit the quest for truth. In Italy there has functioned
for some years now a sort of conditioning, a control of our national
sovereignty by the P2 – which was literally the master of the secret services,
the army and our most delicate organs of state."
Examples
of such alleged terrorist acts include the strategy of tension in Italy, or the
Oktoberfest bomb
blast of 1980 in Munich.[citation
needed] A Gladio official said
that "depending on the cases, we would block or encourage far-left or
far-right terrorism".[14][15]
The
Italian NATO stay-behind organization, dubbed "Gladio", was set up
under Minister of
Defense (from 1953 to 1958) Paolo Taviani's
(DC)
supervision.[16]
However, Gladio's existence came to public knowledge when Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti
revealed it to the Chamber of Deputies on October 24, 1990, although far-right
terrorist Vincenzo
Vinciguerra had already revealed its existence during
his 1984 trial. According to media analyst Edward S. Herman,
"both the President of Italy, Francesco Cossiga,
and Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti, had been involved in the Gladio
organization and coverup..."[17][verification
needed]
[edit] Giulio Andreotti's
October 24, 1990 revelations
Christian
Democrat Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti
publicly recognized the existence of Gladio on October 24, 1990. Andreotti
spoke of a "structure of information, response and safeguard", with
arms caches and reserve officers. He gave to the Commissione Stragi, the parliamentary commission led by senator
Giovanni
Pellegrino in charge of investigations on bombings
committed during the Years Of Lead
in Italy, a list of 622 civilians who according to him were part of Gladio.
Andreotti also assured that 127 weapons' cache had been dismantled, and
pretended that Gladio had not been involved in any of the bombings committed
from the 1960s to the 1980s (further evidence implicated neofascists linked to
Gladio, in particular concerning the 1969 Piazza Fontana
bombing, the 1972 Peteano attack by Vincenzo
Vinciguerra, the 1980 Bologna massacre
in which SISMI
officers were condemned for investigation diversion, along with Licio Gelli,
head of the P2 Masonic lodge, etc.). Andreotti declared that the Italian
military services (predecessors of the SISMI) had joined in 1964 the Allied
Clandestine Committee created in 1957 by the US, France, Belgium and Greece,
and which was in charge of directing Gladio's operations.[18]
However, Gladio was actually set up under Minister of
Defense (from 1953 to 1958) Paolo Taviani's
supervision.[16]
Beside, the list of Gladio members given by Andreotti was incomplete. It didn't
include, for example, Antonio Arconte, who described an organization very
different from the one brushed by Giulio Andreotti: an organization closely
tied to the SID
secret service and the Atlantist strategy.[19][20]
According to Andreotti, the stay-behind organisations set up in all of Europe
did not come "under broad NATO supervision until 1959."[21]
In
2000, a Parliament Commission report from the "Gruppo
Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo" concluded
that the strategy of
tension had been supported by the United States to
"stop the PCI, and to a certain degree
also the PSI,
from reaching executive power in the country". A 2000 Senate
report, stated that "Those massacres, those bombs, those military actions
had been organized or promoted or supported by men inside Italian state
institutions and, as has been discovered more recently, by men linked to the
structures of United States intelligence." According to The Guardian,
"The report [claimed] that US intelligence agents were informed in advance
about several rightwing terrorist bombings, including the December 1969 Piazza Fontana
bombing in Milan and the Piazza della
Loggia bombing in Brescia five years later, but did
nothing to alert the Italian authorities or to prevent the attacks from taking
place. It also [alleged] that Pino Rauti
[current leader of the MSI
Fiamma-Tricolore party], a journalist and founder of
the far-right Ordine Nuovo
(new order) subversive organisation, received regular funding from a press
officer at the US embassy in Rome. 'So even before the 'stabilising' plans that
Atlantic circles had prepared for Italy became operational through the
bombings, one of the leading members of the subversive right was literally in
the pay of the American embassy in Rome,' the report says."[22]
General
Gianadelio Maletti, commander of the counter-intelligence section of the
Italian military intelligence service from 1971 to 1975, alleged in March 2001
during the eight trial for the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombings that the CIA had
foreknowledge of the event.[23]
According to The Guardian, he
said:[24]
...his
men had discovered that a rightwing terrorist cell in the Venice region had
been supplied with military explosives from Germany. Those explosives may have
been obtained with the help of members of the US intelligence community, an
indication that the Americans had gone beyond the infiltration and monitoring
of extremist groups to instigating acts of violence...
General
Maletti told the Italian court that "the
CIA, following the directives of its government, wanted to create an Italian
nationalism capable of halting what it saw as a slide
to the left and, for this purpose, it may have made use of rightwing terrorism,"
and continued on by declaring: "I
believe this is what happened in other countries as well."
Gianadelio Maletti also said to the court: "Don't forget that Nixon
was in charge and Nixon was a strange man, a very intelligent politician but a
man of rather unorthodox initiatives."[citation
needed]
General
Maletti himself in the first Piazza Fontana trial received a four year sentence
for providing a false passport to one of the accused bombers, this sentence was
overturned in 1985.[25]
Maletti received, while in exile, a 15-years sentence in 2000 for his role in
trying to cover up a 1973 bomb attack in Milan against the Interior minister, Mariano Rumor
(DC - 4 killed and 45 injured), but was acquitted on appeals.[26]
According to the court, General Maletti knew in advance of the plan of the
attacker, Gianfranco Bertoli, allegedly an anarchist but in reality a
right-wing activist and a "long-standing SID
informant" according to The Guardian, but had deliberately failed to
inform the interior minister of it.[24]
Responding
to charges made by Maletti in La Repubblica
one year earlier, the CIA called the allegation that it was involved in the
attacks in Italy "ludicrous."[27]
1964
Piano Solo
In
1964, Gladio was involved in a silent coup d'état when General Giovanni
de Lorenzo in the so-called Piano
Solo ("Operation Alone") forced the Italian Socialists
Ministers to leave the government.[28]
1969
Piazza Fontana bombing
According
to Avanguardia
Nazionale member Vincenzo Vinciguerra: "The
December 1969 explosion was supposed to be the detonator which would have
convinced the politic and military authorities to declare a state of emergency"[29]
1970
Golpe Borghese
In
1970, the failed coup attempt Golpe Borghese
gathered, around fascist Junio Valerio
Borghese, international terrorist Stefano Delle
Chiaie and P2 grand master Licio Gelli.[citation
needed]
1972
Gladio meeting
According
to The Guardian, "General
Geraldo Serravalle, a former head of "Office R", told the terrorism
commission that at a crucial Gladio meeting in 1972, at least half of the upper
echelons "had the idea of attacking the communists before an invasion.
They were preparing for civil war." Later, he put it more bluntly:
"They were saying this: "Why wait for the invaders when we can make a
preemptive attack now on the communists who would support the invader? The idea
is now emerging of a Gladio web made up of semi-autonomous cadres which –
although answerable to their secret service masters and ultimately to the
NATO-CIA command – could initiate what they regarded as anti-communist
operations by themselves, needing only sanction and funds from the existing
'official' Gladio column (...) General Nino Lugarese, head of SISMI
from 1981-84 testified on the existence of a 'Super Gladio' of 800 men
responsible for 'internal intervention' against domestic political targets."[5]
May
31, 1972 Peteano massacre
Magistrate
Felice Casson
discovered that "the explosives used in the attack came from one of 139
secret weapons depots of a secret army organized under the code name Operation
Gladio".[17]
Neofascist Vincenzo Vinciguerra confessed in 1984 to judge Felice Casson
of having carried out the Peteano terrorist attack, in which three policemen
died, and for which the Red Brigades (BR) had been blamed before. Vinciguerra
explained during his trial how he had been helped by Italian secret services to
escape the police and to fly away to Francoist
Spain. However, he was abandoned by NATO as soon as he started talking
about Gladio, declaring for example during his 1984 trial:
"with
the massacre of Peteano and with all those that have followed, the knowledge
should now be clear that there existed a real live structure, occult and
hidden, with the capacity of giving a strategic direction to the outrages.
[This structure] lies within the states itself. There exists in Italy a secret
force parallel to the armed forces, composed of civilians and military men, in
an anti-Soviet capacity, that is, to organise a resistance on Italian soil
against a Russian army... A super-organization which, lacking a Soviet military
invasion which might not happen, took up the task, on NATO's behalf, of
preventing a slip to the left in the political balance of the country. This
they did, with the assistance of the official secret services and the political
and military forces..." He then said to
The Guardian, in 1990: "I say that every single outrage that
followed from 1969 fitted into a single, organised matrix... Avanguardia Nazionale, like Ordine Nuovo
(the main right-wing terrorist group active during the 1970s), were
being mobilised into the battle as part of an anti-communist strategy originating
not with organisations deviant from the institutions of power, but from within
the state itself, and specifically from within the ambit of the state's
relations within the Atlantic Alliance."[4][5]
November
23, 1973 Bombing of the plane Argo 16
General
Geraldo Serravalle, head of Gladio from 1971 to 1974, told a television
programme that he now thought the explosion aboard the plane Argo 16
on 23 November 1973 was probably the work of gladiatori
who were refusing to hand over their clandestine arms. Until then it was widely
believed the sabotage was carried out by Mossad,
the Israeli foreign service, in retaliation for the pro-Libyan Italian
government’s decision to expel, rather than try, five Arabs who had tried to
blow up an Israeli airliner. The Arabs had been spirited out of the country on
board the Argo 16.[30]
1974
Piazza della
Loggia bombing, Italicus
Express massacre, and arrest of Vito Miceli, chief of the
Army intelligence service and member of P2, on charges of "conspiracy
against the state"
In
1974, a massacre committed by Ordine Nuovo,
during an anti-fascist demonstration in Brescia, kills eight and injures 102.
The same year, a bomb in the Rome to Munich train "Italicus Express"
kills 12 and injures 48. Also in 1974, Vito Miceli,
P2 member, chief of the SIOS (Servizio
Informazioni), Army Intelligence's Service from 1969 and SID's
head from 1970 to 1974, got arrested on charges of "conspiration against
the state" concerning investigations about Rosa dei venti,
a state-infiltrated group involved in terrorist acts. During his trial, he
revealed the existence of the NATO stay-behind secret army.[citation
needed]
1977
Reorganization of Italian secret services following Vito Miceli's arrest
In
1977, the secret services were thus reorganized in a democratic attempt. With law#801
of 24/10/1977, SID
was divided into SISMI
(Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza
Militare), SISDE
(Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza
Democratica) and CESIS
(Comitato Esecutivo per i Servizi di Informazione
e Sicurezza). The CESIS was given a coordination role, led by the President of
Council.[citation
needed]
1978
Murder of Aldo Moro
Prime
minister Aldo Moro was murdered in May 1978 by the Second Red Brigades (BR),
headed by Mario Moretti,
in obscure circumstances. The head of the Italian secret services, accused of
negligence, was a P2 member. The so-called "historic
compromise" between the Christian Democrats and the PCI was
abandoned:[31]
The Italian Government led by Prime Minister Francesco Cossiga (a member of the
extreme right faction of Italy's Christian Democrat party, a pro-NATO atlantist
was also suspected of involvement in the killing of Aldo Moro).[citation
needed]
"As the conspiracy theorists would have it, Mr. Moro
was allowed to be killed either with the acquiescence of people high in Italy’s
political establishment, or at their instigation, because of the historic
compromise he had made with the Communist Party"[citation
needed]
"During his captivity, Aldo Moro wrote several letters
to various political figures, including Giulio Andreotti. In October 1990,
"a cache of previously unknown letters written by the former Prime
Minister, Aldo Moro, just prior to his execution by Red Brigade terrorists in
1978... was discovered in a Milan apartment which had once been used as a Red
Brigade hideout. One of those letters made reference to the involvement of both
NATO and the CIA in an Italian-based secret service, 'parallel' army."[32] "This safe house had been thoroughly searched
at the time by Carlo Alberto
Dalla Chiesa, the head of counter-terrorism. How is it
that the papers had not been revealed before?" asked The Independent[31]
Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa was murdered in 1982 (see below).
In
May 1978, investigative journalist Mino Pecorelli
thought that Aldo Moro's kidnapping had been organised by a "lucid
superpower" and was inspired by the "logic of Yalta".
He painted the figure of General Carlo Alberto
Dalla Chiesa as "general Amen," explaining
that it was him that, during Aldo Moro's kidnap, had informed Interior Minister
Francesco Cossiga
of the localization of the cave where Moro was detained. In 1978, Pecorelli
wrote that Dalla Chiesa was in danger and would be assassinated (Dalla Chiesa
was murdered four years later). After Aldo Moro's assassination, Mino Pecorelli
published some confidential documents, mainly Moro's letters to his family. In
a cryptic article published in May 1978, wrote The Guardian
in May 2003, Pecorelli drew a connection between Gladio, NATO's stay-behind
anti-communist organisation (which existence was publicly acknowledged by Prime
Minister Giulio Andreotti
in October 1990) and Moro's death. During his interrogation, Aldo Moro had
referred to "NATO's anti-guerrilla activities."[33]
Mino Pecorelli, who was on Licio Gelli's
list of P2 members
discovered in 1980, was assassinated on March 20, 1979. The ammunitions used, a
very rare type, where the same as discovered in the Banda della
Magliana 's weapons stock hidden in the
Health Minister's basement. Pecorelli's assassination has been thought to be
directly related to Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti,
who was condemned to 20 years of prison for it in 2002 before having the
sentence cancelled by the Supreme Court of
Cassation in 2003.[citation
needed]
1980
Bologna
massacre
"The makings of the bomb... came from an arsenal used
by Gladio... according to a parliamentary commission on terrorism... The
suggested link with the Bologna massacre is potentially the most serious of all
the accusations levelled against Gladio, and comes just two days after the
Italian Prime Minister, Giulio Andreotti, cleared Gladio’s name in a speech to
parliament, saying that the secret army did not drift from its formal Nato
military brief."[34]
In November 1995, Neo-Fascists terrorists Valerio Fioravanti and Francesca
Mambro, members of the Nuclei Armati
Revoluzionari (NAR), were convicted to life imprisonment as executors
of the 1980 Bologna massacre. The NAR neofascist group worked in cooperation
with the Banda della
Magliana, a Mafia-linked gang which took
over Rome's underground in the 1970s and was involved in various political
events of the strategy of tension, including the Aldo Moro case, the 1979
assassination of Mino
Pecorelli, a journalist who published articles alleging links between
Prime minister Giulio Andreotti and the mafia, as well as the assassination of
"God's Banker" Roberto Calvi
in 1982. The investigations concerning the Bologna bombing proved Gladio's
direct influence: Licio Gelli, P2's headmaster, received a sentence for
investigation diversion, as well as Francesco Pazienza and SISMI officers
Pietro Musumeci and Giuseppe Belmonte. Avanguardia
Nazionale founder Stefano Delle
Chiaie, who was involved in the Golpe Borghese in 1970, was also accused
of involvement in the Bologna massacre[15][35]
1982
murder of General Carlo Alberto
Dalla Chiesa, head of counter-terrorism.
General
Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa's 1982 murder, in Palermo, by Pino
Greco, one of the Mafia
Godfather Salvatore Riina's
(aka Toto Riina) favorite hitmen,
is allegedly part of the strategy of tension. Alberto Dalla Chiesa had arrested
Red Brigades founders Renato Curcio and Alberto Franceschini in September,
1974, and was later charged of investigation concerning Aldo Moro. He had also found
Aldo Moro's letters concerning Gladio.
October
24, 1990 Giulio Andreotti’s
acknowledgement of Operazione Gladio
After
the discovery by judge Felice Casson
of documents on Gladio in the archives of the Italian military secret service
in Rome, Giulio Andreotti, head of Italian government, revealed to the Chamber
of deputies the existence of "Operazione
Gladio" on October 24, 1990, insisting that Italy has not been
the only country with secret "stay-behind" armies. He made clear that
"each chief of government had been informed of the existence of
Gladio". Former Socialist Prime Minister Bettino Craxi
said that he had not been informed until he was confronted with a document on
Gladio signed by himself while he was Prime Minister. Former Prime Minister Giovanni Spadolini
(Republican Party), at the time President of the Senate, and former Prime
Minister Arnaldo Forlani,
at the time secretary of the ruling Christian Democratic Party claimed they
remembered nothing. Spadolini stressed that there was a difference between what
he knew as former Defence Secretary and what he knew as former Prime Minister.
Only former Prime Minister Francesco Cossiga
(DC) confirmed Andreotti's revelations, explaining that he was even "proud
and happy" for his part in setting up Gladio as junior Defence Minister of
the Christian Democratic Party. This lit up a political storm, requests were
made for Cossiga's (Italian President since 1985) resignation or impeachment
for high treason. He refused to testify to the investigating Senate committee.
Cossiga narrowly escaped his impeachment
by stepping down on April 1992, three months before his term expired.[36]
1998
David Carrett, officer of the U.S.
Navy
David
Carrett, officer of the U.S. Navy, was indicted by magistrate Guido Salvini
on charge of political and military espionage and his participation to the 1969
Piazza Fontana bombing, among other events. Judge Guido Salvini also opened up
a case against Sergio Minetto, Italian official for the US-NATO intelligence
network, and pentito
Carlo Digilio. La Repubblica
underlined that Carlo Rocchi, CIA's man at Milan, was surprised in 1995
searching for information concerning Operation Gladio, thus demonstrating that
all was not over.[29]
1969
Piazza Fontana
bombing, which started Italy's anni di piombo, and the 1974 "Italicus
Expressen" train bombing were also attributed to Gladio
operatives. In 1975, Stefano Delle
Chiaie met with Pinochet
during Franco's
funeral in Madrid, and would participate afterward in operation Condor,
preparing for example the attempted murder of Bernardo Leighton,
a Chilean Christian Democrat, or participating in the 1980 'Cocaine Coup' of Luis García Meza
Tejada in Bolivia. In 1989, he was arrested in Caracas,
Venezuela and extradited to Italy to stand trial for his role in the Piazza
Fontana bombing. Despite his reputation, Delle Chiaie was acquitted by the
Assize Court in Catanzaro
in 1989, along with fellow accused Massimiliano Fachini (as yet no convictions
have been made for the attack). According to Avanguardia
Nazionale member Vincenzo Vinciguerra: "The December 1969
explosion was supposed to be the detonator which would have convinced the
political and military authorities to declare a state of emergency."[29]
In
July 2005, the Italian press revealed the existence of the Department of
Anti-terrorism Strategic Studies (DSSA), a
"parallel police" created by Gaetano Saya
and Riccardo Sindoca,
two leaders of the National Union of the Police Forces (UNPF), a trade-union
present in all the state security forces. Both said they were former members of
Gladio. According to the DSSA website — closed after these revelations —
Fabrizio Quattrocchi, murdered in Iraq after being taken hostage, was there
"for the DSSA". According to the Italian investigators, the DSSA was
trying to obtain international and national recognition by intelligence
agencies, in order to obtain finances for its parallel activities. Furthermore,
Il Messaggero,
quoted by The Independent,
declared that, according to judicial sources, wiretaps suggested DSSA members
had been planning to kidnap Cesare Battisti,
a former communist activist. "We were seeing the genesis of something
similar to the death squads
in Argentina"
(the AAA
groups) the magistrate is reported to have said.[37][38][39][40][41]
After
the 1966 retreat of France from NATO, the SHAPE headquarters were displaced to Mons
in Belgium. In 1990, following France's denial of any "stay-behind"
French army, Giulio Andreotti publicly said the last Allied Clandestine
Committee (ACC) meeting, at which the French branch of Gladio was present, had
been on October 23 and 24, 1990, under the presidency of Belgian General Van
Calster, director of the Belgian military
secret service SGR. In November, Guy Coëme, the
Minister of the Defense, acknowledged the existence of a Belgium
"stay-behind" army, lifting concerns about a similar implication in
terrorist acts as in Italy. The same year, the European
Parliament sharply condemned NATO and the United
States in a resolution for having manipulated European politics with the
stay-behind armies.[28]
New
legislation governing intelligence agencies' missions and methods was passed in
1998, following two government inquiries and the creation of a permanent
parliamentary committee in 1991, which was to bring them under the authority of
Belgium's federal agencies. The Commission was created following events in the
1980s, which included the Brabant massacres
and the activities of far right group Westland New Post.[42]
In
1947, Interior Minister Edouard Depreux
revealed the existence of a secret stay-behind army in France codenamed
"Plan Bleu". The next year, the "Western Union Clandestine Committee"
(WUCC) was created to coordinate secret unorthodox warfare. In 1949, the WUCC
was integrated into NATO,
whose headquarters were established in France, under the name "Clandestine
Planning Committee" (CPC). In 1958, NATO founded the Allied Clandestine
Committee (ACC) to coordinate secret warfare.[citation
needed]
The
network was supported with elements from SDECE,
and had military support from the 11th Choc regiment.
The former director of DGSE,
admiral Pierre Lacoste,
alleged in a 1992 interview with The Nation,
that certain elements from the network were involved with terrorist activities
against de Gaulle
and his Algerian policy. A section of the 11th Choc regiment split over the
1962 Evian peace accords, and became part of the Organisation
armée secrète (OAS), but it is unclear if this also involved
members of the French stay-behind network.[43][44]
La
Rose des Vents and Arc-en-ciel ("Rainbow") network were part of Gladio. François de
Grossouvre was Gladio's leader for the region around Lyon
in France until his alleged suicide on April 7, 1994. Grossouvre would have
asked Constantin Melnik, leader of the French secret services during the Algerian War of
Independence (1954–62), to return to activity. He was
living in comfortable exile in the US, where he maintained links with the Rand Corporation.
Constantin Melnik is alleged to have been involved in the creation in 1952 of
the Ordre Souverain du Temple Solaire,
an ancestor of the Order of the Solar
Temple, created by former A.M.O.R.C. members, in which
the SDECE
(French former military intelligence agency) was interested.[45]
The
Danish stay-behind army was code-named Absalon,
after a Danish archbishop,
and led by E.J. Harder.
It was hidden in the military secret service Forsvarets
Efterretningstjeneste (FE). In 1978, William Colby,
former director of the CIA,
released his memoirs in which he described the setting-up of stay-behind armies
in Scandinavia:[46]
"The
situation in each Scandinavian country was different. Norway
and Denmark
were NATO allies, Sweden
held to the neutrality that had taken her through two world wars, and Finland
were required to defer in its foreign policy to the Soviet power directly on
its borders. Thus, in one set of these countries the governments themselves
would build their own stay-behind nets, counting on activating them from exile
to carry on the struggle. These nets had to be co-ordinated with NATO's plans,
their radios had to be hooked to a future exile location, and the specialised
equipment had to be secured from CIA and secretly cached in snowy hideouts for
later use. In other set of countries, CIA would have to do the job alone or
with, at best, "unofficial" local help, since the politics of those
governments barred them from collaborating with NATO, and any exposure would
arouse immediate protest from the local Communist press, Soviet diplomats and
loyal Scandinavians who hoped that neutrality or nonalignment would allow them
to slip through a World War III unharmed."
On
November 25, 1990, Danish daily newspaper Berlingske
Tidende, quoted by Daniele Ganser (2005), confirmed William
Colby's revelations, by a source named "Q":
"Colby's
story is absolutely correct. Absalon was created in the early 1950s. Colby was
a member of the world spanning laymen Catholic organisation Opus Dei,
which, using a modern term, could be called right-wing. Opus Dei played a
central role in the setting up of Gladio in the whole of Europe and also in
Denmark... The leader of Gladio was Harder who was probably not a Catholic. But
there are not many Catholics in Denmark and the basic elements making up the
Danish Gladio were former [WW II] resistance people - former prisoners of Vestre Fængsel,
Frøslevlejren,
Neuengamme
and also of the Danish Brigade."
Reinhard Gehlen,
Nazi intelligence agent on the East front during the war, turned towards the US
after the war, and set up the "Gehlen Organisation," which used many former Nazi party
members for intelligence purposes during the Cold War.
But alongside the Gehlen organisation, which became the nucleus of the Bundesnachrichtendienst
(BND, Federal Intelligence Service), West Germany's
intelligence agency created in 1956, US intelligence also set up a German
stay-behind network parallel (and juxtaposed) to the Gehlen Org (which also had
a role in the organisation of the ODESSA
network, used to exfiltrate Nazi war criminals). CIA
documents released in June 2006 under the 1998 Nazi War
Crimes Disclosure Act, more than fifteen years after
Prime minister Giulio Andreotti's revelations concerning Gladio, show that the
CIA organized "stay-behind" networks of German agents between 1949
and 1955.[47]
One
of these networks supported by the CIA was the Technische
Dienst (TD, Technical Service) section within the Bund Deutscher Jugend (BDJ, Union of
German Youth). The anti-communist BDJ was founded in 1950 by ex-Nazis Erhard
Peters and CIA money-contact Paul Lüth.
The existence of TD came to light, after a speech in the Hesse Landtag by PM
Georg August Zinn.[48]
During the investigations into BDJ, which started in September 1952, a couple
of arms caches were found, including one in the Odenwald region, Hesse.[49]
The claim by August Zinn that the BDJ supposedly was in the possession of a
list of Social Democracts and Communists to be liquidated in case of a Soviet
invasion, including leading figures of the opposition Social Democratic
Party[50])
was denied by German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.[49]
The BDJ was outlawed in January 1953.[51][52]
Documents
shown to the Italian parliamentary terrorism committee revealed that in the
1970s British and French officials involved in the network visited a training
base in Germany built with US money.[50]
In
1976, the secret service BND secretary Heidrun Hofer was arrested after having
revealed the secrets of the German stay-behind army to her husband, who was a
spy of the KGB.[28]
Revelations
of a witness in the investigation of the Oktoberfest
bomb blast of 1980 in Munich lead to the conclusion that the explosives might
have come from the German Neo-Nazi Heinz Lembke.[53]
In 1981, German police by chance found an arms cache in the Lüneburg Heath,
which led to the arrest of Lembke and the discovery of other arms caches in
Lower Saxony. A few days later Lembke hanged himself in his prison cell. Lembke
had been questioned in Oktoberfest investigation, but the public prosecutors
found no evidence that he supplied the explosives for the bombing.[54]
Lembke's
arms caches were supposed to be connected to Gladio by a number of researchers
and journalists.[4]
One
network included Staff Sergent Heinrich Hoffman and Lieutenant Colonel Hans
Rues, and another one, codenamed Kibitz-15, was run by Lieutenant Colonel Walter Kopp,
a former Wehrmacht
officer, described by his own North American handlers as an
"unreconstructed Nazi."[55]
In an April 1953 CIA memo released in June 2006, the CIA headquarters wrote:
"The present furore in Western Germany over the resurgence of the Nazi or neo-Nazi
groups is a fair example — in miniature — of what we would be faced with."
Therefore some of these networks
were dismantled. These documents stated that the ex-Nazis were a complete
failure in intelligence terms. According to Timothy Naftali, a US historian
from the University of
Virginia who reviewed the CIA documents then released,
"The files show time and again that these people were more trouble than
they were worth. The unreconstructed Nazis were always out for themselves, and
they were using the West's lack of information about the Soviet Union to
exploit it."[55]
The US NARA
Archives themselves stated in a 2002 communique, concerning Reinhard Gehlen's
recruiting of former Nazis, that "Besides the troubling moral issues
involved, these recruitments opened the West German government, and by
extension the United States, to penetration by the Soviet intelligence
services."[56]
Hans Globke,
who had worked for Adolf Eichmann
in the Jewish Affairs department and helped draft the 1935 Nuremberg laws,
became Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's
national security advisor in the 1960s, and "was the main liaison with the
CIA and NATO" according to The Guardian.[55]
A March 1958 memo from the German BND
agency to the CIA wrote that Adolf Eichmann
is "reported to have lived in Argentina under the alias CLEMENS since
1952." However, the CIA did not pass the information on to the Israeli MOSSAD,
as it feared revelations concerning its use of former Nazis for intelligence
purposes — Eichmann, who was in charge of the Jewish Affairs department, was
abducted by the MOSSAD two years later. Among these information that might have
been revealed by Eichmann were the ones concerning Hans Globke, CIA's liaison
in West Germany. At the request of Bonn,
the CIA persuaded Life magazine
to delete any reference to Globke from Eichmann's memoirs, which it had bought
from his family.[47]
In
2004 the German spymaster Norbert Juretzko
published a book about his work at the BND. He went into details about
recruiting partisans for the German stay-behind network. He was sacked from BND
following a secret trial
against him, because the BND could not find out the real name of his Russian
source "Rübezahl"
whom he had recruited. A man with the name he put on file was arrested by the
KGB following treason in the BND, but was obviously innocent, his name having
been chosen at random from the public phone book by Juretzko.[citation
needed]
According
to Juretzko, the BND built up its branch of Gladio, but discovered after the
fall of the German Democratic
Republic that it was 100% known to the Stasi
early on. When the network was dismantled, further odd details emerged. One
fellow "spymaster" had kept the radio equipment in his cellar at home
with his wife doing the engineering test call every 4 months, on the grounds
that the equipment was too "valuable" to remain in civilian hands.
Juretzko found out because this spymaster had dismantled his section of the
network so quickly, there had been no time for measures such as recovering all
caches of supplies.[citation
needed] Civilians recruited as
stay-behind partisans were equipped with a clandestine shortwave radio with a
fixed frequency. It had a keyboard with digital encryption, making use of
traditional Morse code obsolete. They had a cache of further equipment for
signalling helicopters or submarines to drop special agents who were to stay in
the partisan's homes while mounting sabotage operations against the communists.[citation
needed]
The
aim of British Prime minister Winston Churchill was to prevent the
communist-led EAM
resistance movement from taking power after the end of World War II. After the
suppression of a pro-EAM uprising in April 1944 among the Greek forces in
Egypt, a new and firmly reliable unit was formed, the
Third Greek Mountain Brigade, which excluded "almost all men with views
ranging from moderately conservative to left wing."[57]
After liberation in October 1944, EAM controlled most of the country. When it
organized a demonstration in Athens on December 3, 1944 , members of rightist
and pro-royalist paramilitary organizations, covered by "British troops
and police with machine guns... posited on the rooftops", suddenly shot on
the crowd, killing 25 protesters (including a six-year-old boy) and wounding
148.[58]
This marked the outbreak of the Dekemvriana,
which would lead to the Greek Civil War.[citation
needed]
When
Greece joined NATO in 1952, the country's special forces, the LOK
(Lochoi Oreinōn Katadromōn,
i.e. "Mountain Raiding Companies") were integrated into the European
stay-behind network. The CIA and LOK reconfirmed on March 25, 1955 their mutual
co-operation in a secret document signed by US General Trascott for the CIA,
and Konstantinos Dovas, chief of staff of the Greek military. In addition to
preparing for a Soviet invasion, the CIA instructed LOK to prevent a leftist
coup. Former CIA agent Philip Agee,
who was sharply criticized in the US for having revealed sensitive information,
insisted that "paramilitary groups, directed by CIA officers, operated in
the sixties throughout Europe [and he stressed that] perhaps no activity of the
CIA could be as clearly linked to the possibility of internal subversion."[59]
The
LOK was involved in the Greek military coup d' État on April 21, 1967,[60]
which took place one month before the scheduled national elections for which
opinion polls predicted an overwhelming victory of the centrist Center Union
of George
and Andreas Papandreou.
Under the command of paratrooper Lieutenant Colonel Costas Aslanides, the LOK
took control of the Greek Defence Ministry while Brigadier General Stylianos
Pattakos gained control over communication centers, the parliament, the royal
palace, and according to detailed lists, arrested over 10,000 people. Phillips
Talbot, the US ambassador in Athens, disapproved of the military coup which
established the "Regime of the Colonels"
(1967–1974), complaining that it represented "a rape of democracy" -
to which Jack Maury, the CIA chief of station in Athens, answered: "How
can you rape a whore?".[61]
Arrested
and then exiled in Canada and Sweden, Andreas Papandreou later returned to
Greece, where he won the 1981 election for Prime minister, forming the first
socialist government of Greece's post-war history. According to his own
testimony, he discovered the existence of the secret NATO army, then codenamed
"Red Sheepskin", as acting prime minister in 1984 and had given
orders to dissolve it.[62]
Following
Giulio Andreotti's revelations in 1990, the Greek defence minister confirmed
that a branch of the network, known as Operation Sheepskin, operated in his
country until 1988.[63]
The socialist opposition called for a parliamentary investigation into the
secret army and its alleged link to terrorism and the 1967 coup d'état. Public
order minister Yannis Vassiliadis declared that there was no need to
investigate such "fantasies" as "Sheepskin was one of 50 NATO
plans which foresaw that when a country was occupied by an enemy there should
be an organised resistance. It foresaw arms caches and officers who would form
the nucleus of a guerilla war. In other words, it was a nationally justifiable
act."[citation
needed]
In
December 2005, journalist Kleanthis Grivas published an article in To Proto Thema, a Greek Sunday newspaper,
in which he accused "Sheepskin" for the assassination of CIA station
chief Richard Welch
in Athens in 1975, as well as the assassination of British military attaché Stephen Saunders
in 2000. This was denied by the US State
Department, who responded that "the Greek
terrorist organization '17 November'
was responsible for both assassinations", and that Grivas's central piece
of evidence had been the Westmoreland Field
Manual which the State department, as well as an
independent Congressional inquiry have alleged to be a Soviet forgery.[64]
The document in question, however, makes no specific mention of Greece,
November 17, nor Welch. The State Department also highlighted the fact that, in
the case of Richard Welch, "Grivas bizarrely accuses the CIA of playing a
role in the assassination of one of its own senior officials" while
"Sheepskin" couldn't have assassinate Stephen Saunders for the simple
reason, according to the US government, that "the Greek government stated
it dismantled the “stay behind” network in 1988."[64]
A
large arms cache was discovered in 1983 near the village Velp. In 1990 the
government by means of then-prime-minister Ruud Lubbers
was forced to confirm that the arms were related to planning for unorthodox
warfare. He insisted that the Dutch organisation was, contrary to the
operations in other European countries, totally independent from NATO command,
and during wartime occupation would be commanded by the Dutch government in
exile. The operating bureaus of the organisation would also move to safety in
England or the USA at the first sign of trouble.[citation
needed]
In
his television show of 22 April 2007 Dutch crime journalist Peter R. De Vries
revealed that weapons had been illegally supplied to Gladio well after the
network was supposed to have been disbanded.[28]
A
Dutch investigative television program revealed on September 9, 2007, that an
arms cache that belonged to Gladio was ransacked in the 1980s. The cache was
located in a forest near Scheveningen.
Some of stolen weapons later turned up, including hand grenades and machine
guns, when police officials arrested criminals Sam Klepper
and John Mieremet
in 1991. The Dutch military intelligence agency, MIVD,
feared at that time that the disclosure of the Gladio history of these weapons
was politically explosive.[65][66]
In
1957, the director of the secret service NIS,
Vilhelm Evang,
protested strongly against the pro-active intelligence activities at AFNORTH,
as described by the chairman of CPC: "[NIS] was extremely worried about
activities carried out by officers at Kolsås.
This concerned SB, Psywar and Counter Intelligence." These activities
supposedly included the blacklisting of Norwegians. SHAPE
denied these allegations. Eventually, the matter was resolved in 1958, after
Norway was assured about how stay-behind networks were to be operated.[67][page needed]
In
1978, the police discovered an arms cache and radio equipment at a mountain
cabin and arrested Hans Otto Meyer,
a businessman accused of being involved in selling illegal alcohol. Meyer
claimed that the weapons were supplied by Norwegian intelligence. Rolf Hansen,
defense minister at that time, stated the network was not in any way answerable
to NATO and had no CIA connection.[68]
In
1966, the CIA set up Aginter Press
which, under the direction of Captain Yves Guérin-Sérac
(who had taken part in the founding of the OAS), ran a secret stay-behind army
and trained its members in covert action techniques amounting to terrorism,
including bombings, silent assassinations, subversion techniques, clandestine
communication and infiltration and colonial warfare. Aginter Press was
suspected of having assassinated General Humberto Delgado
(1906–1965), founder of the Portuguese
National Liberation Front against Salazar's
dictatorship (prominent historians and several sources also claim Delgado's
assassination was performed by PIDE
operational Rosa Casaco), as well as anti-colonialist leader Amilcar Cabral
(1924–1973), founder of the PAIGC
(African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde) and Eduardo Mondlane
leader of the liberation movement FRELIMO
(Frente de Libertação de Moçambique),
in 1969 (prominent historians and several sources also claim Cabral's
assassination was performed by indivuduals within Cabral's guerrilla movemment,
the PAIGC,
and Mondlane's death was work of his enemies inside FRELIMO
- according to these versions, both assassinations were the result of struggles
for power within the independentist movements).[28][69]
In
the United Kingdom,
Prime Minister Winston Churchill
created the Special Operations
Executive (SOE) in 1940 to assist resistance movements
and carry out subversive operations in enemy-held territory across occupied
Europe. Guardian
reporter David Pallister
wrote in December 1990 that a guerrilla network with arms caches had been put
in place following the fall of France.
It included Brigadier
"Mad Mike" Calvert, and was drawn from a
special-forces ski battalion of the Scots Guards
which was originally intended to fight in Nazi-occupied Finland.[21]
Known as Auxiliary Units,
they were headed by Major Colin Gubbins,
an expert in guerrilla warfare who would later lead the SOE. The Auxiliary
Units were attached to GHQ Home Forces,
and concealed within the Home Guard.
The units were created in preparation of a possible invasion
of the British Isles by the Third Reich. These units
were allegedly stood down only in 1944. Several of their members subsequently
joined the Special Air
Service and saw action in France in late 1944. The
units' existence did not generally become known by the public until the 1990s
though a book on the subject was published in 1968.[70]
In fiction, Owen Sheers' Resistance
(2008), set in Wales, takes as one of its central characters a member of the
Auxiliary Units called to resist a successful German invasion.
After
the end of World War II,
the stay-behind armies were created with the experience and involvement of
former SOE officers.[28]
Following Giulio Andreotti's October 1990 revelations, General Sir John
Hackett (1910–1997), former commander-in-chief of the British Army on
the Rhine, declared on November 16, 1990 that a
contingency plan involving "stay behind and resistance in depth" was
drawn up after the war. The same week, Sir Anthony
Farrar-Hockley (1924–2006), former commander-in-chief
of NATO's Forces in Northern Europe from 1979 to 1982, declared to The Guardian that a secret arms network
was established in Britain after the war.[50]
General John Hackett had written in 1978 a novel, The Third World War: August 1985, which was a fictionalized
scenario of a Soviet Army invasion of West Germany in 1985. The novel was
followed in 1982 by The Third World
War: The Untold Story, which elaborated on
the original. Farrar-Hockley had aroused controversy in 1983 when he became
involved in trying to organise a campaign for a new Home Guard against eventual
Soviet invasion.[71]
Gladio
membership included mostly ex-servicemen but also followers of Oswald Mosley's
pre-war fascist movement.[citation
needed]
General
Gerardo Serravalle,
who commanded the Italian Gladio from 1971 to 1974, related that "in the
1970s the members of the CPC [Coordination and Planning Committee] were the
officers responsible for the secret structures of Great Britain, France,
Germany, Belgium, Luxemburg, the Netherlands and Italy. These representatives
of the secret structures met every year in one of the capitals... At the
stay-behind meetings representatives of the CIA were always present. They had
no voting rights and were from the CIA headquarters of the capital in which the
meeting took place... members of the US Forces Europe Command were present,
also without voting rights. ".[72]
Next to the CPC a second secret command post was created in 1957, the Allied
Clandestine Committee (ACC). According to the Belgian Parliamentary Committee
on Gladio, the ACC was "responsible for coordinating the 'Stay-behind'
networks in Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland, Norway,
United Kingdom and the United States". During peacetime, the activities of
the ACC "included elaborating the directives for the network, developing
its clandestine capability and organising bases in Britain and the United
States. In wartime, it was to plan stay-behind operations in conjunction with
SHAPE; organisers were to activate clandestine bases and organise operations
from there".[73]
General Serravale declared to the Commissione
Stragi headed by senator Giovanni
Pellegrino that the Italian Gladio members trained at
a military base in Britain.[50]
Documents shown to the committee also revealed that British and French
officials members of Gladio had visited in the 1970s a training base in Germany
built with US money.[50]
Column
88 was a neo-nazi
paramilitary
organization based in the United Kingdom.
It was formed in the early 1970s, and disbanded in the early 1980s. The members
of Column 88 undertook military training under the supervision of a former Royal Marine
Commando, and also held regular gatherings attended by neo-nazis from all over
Europe. The name is code: the eighth letter of the alphabet 'HH' represents the
Nazi greeting 'Heil Hitler'.
Many suspected that this group were behind the arson attack that destroyed the Albany Empire
in Deptford, south London in July 1978 during the Rock Against
Racism campaign.[74]
In
January 1991, the well known UK anti-fascist Searchlight magazine
as part of a series of often contradictory articles variously alleging that C88
was the paramilitary wing of the British nationalist movement or a
"honeytrap operation set up by British Intelligence, claimed that Column
88 was part of an alleged European Gladio
"stay-behind" network, set up and trained by special forces
units (such as the British SAS)
to conduct sabotage and assassinations in the event of a Soviet
invasion of Western Europe.
This European-wide underground network is also alleged to have recruited
neo-Nazis in Norway,
Sweden,
Germany,
Italy
and other European countries.[74]
References
Ganser,
Daniele: NATO's Secret Armies. Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western
Europe. (London: Frank Cass, 2005). ISBN 0-7146-8500-3.
[edit] The Guardian's November 1990 revelations concerning plans under Margaret
Thatcher
The Guardian reported on November 5, 1990, that there had been a
"secret attempt to revive elements of a parallel post-war plan relating to
overseas operations" in the "early days of Mrs Thatcher's
Conservative leadership". According to the British newspaper, "a
group of former intelligence officers, inspired by the wartime Special Operations
Executive, attempted to set up a secret unit as a kind of armed MI6 cell. Those
behind the scheme included Airey Neave,
Mrs Thatcher's close adviser who was killed in a terrorist attack in 1979, and George Kennedy
Young, a former deputy chief of the Secret
Intelligence Service, MI6." The newspaper stated that Thatcher had been
"initially enthusiastic but dropped the idea after the scandal surrounding
the attack by the French secret service on the Greenpeace ship, Rainbow Warrior,
in New Zealand in 1985."[75]
The Swiss branch, P-26,
as well as Italian Gladio, had trained in the UK in the early 1970s.[75][76]
In
Austria, the first secret stay-behind army was exposed in 1947. It had been set
up by far-right Soucek and Rössner, who both insisted during their trial that
"they were carrying out the secret operation with the full knowledge and
support of the US and British occupying powers." Sentenced to death, they
were then pardoned under mysterious circumstances by President Körner
(1951–1957).
Franz Olah
set up a new secret army codenamed Österreichischer
Wander-, Sport- und Geselligkeitsverein (OWSGV, literally
"Austrian hiking, sports and society club"), with the cooperation of
MI6 and the CIA. He later explained that "we bought cars under this name.
We installed communication centres in several regions of Austria",
confirming that "special units were trained in the use of weapons and
plastic explosives". He precised that "there must have been a couple
of thousand people working for us... Only very, very highly positioned
politicians and some members of the union knew about it".
In
1965, the police forces discovered a stay-behind arms cache in an old mine
close to Windisch-Bleiberg and forced the British authorities to hand over a
list with the location of 33 other caches in Austria.[28]
In
1990, when secret "stay-behind" armies were discovered all around
Europe, the Austrian government said that no secret army had existed in the
country. However, six years later, the Boston
Globe revealed the existence of secret CIA arms caches in
Austria. Austrian President Thomas Klestil
and Chancellor Franz Vranitzky
insisted that they had known nothing of the existence of the secret army and
demanded that the US launch a full-scale investigation into the violation of
Austria's neutrality, which was denied by President Bill Clinton.
State Department spokesman Nicholas Burns
- appointed in August 2001 by President George Bush
as the US Permanent Representative to the Atlantic treaty organization, where,
as ambassador to NATO, he headed the combined State-Defense Department United
States Mission to NATO and coordinated the NATO response to the September 11, 2001
attacks - insisted: "The aim was noble, the aim
was correct, to try to help Austria if it was under occupation. What went wrong
is that successive Washington administrations simply decided not to talk to the
Austrian government about it."[4]
The
Turkish branch of Gladio Counter-Guerrilla
formed the TMT Turkish Resistance
Organisation in Cyprus in 1958 and manned it with
turkish officers. The 1960 constitution of the republic of Cyprus only had
provision for a very small professional army of a few hundred men from both
Cypriot communities. Following the 1963-64 clashes that led to the collapse of
the power sharing between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, the National Guard
was created as a conscription Greek cypriot army. The officers for the National
Guard where almost exclusively Greek nationals, officers of the Greek Army. LOK
units were created in Cyprus modelled on the Greek LOK units, though Cyprus
never joined NATO and was at the time a member of the Non-Aligned
Movement. Reporter Makarios Drousiotis[77]
has written about Greek officer Dimitris Papapostolou, commander of LOK in
Cyprus at the time, conspiring with ex-interior minister Polykarpos
Yorkatzis to kill elected president Makarios
by attacking his helicopter, and after the failure of that attempt, being
involved in the assassination of Yorkatzis. The 15 July 1974 coup d'etat
against Makarios was executed by National Guard units, with the attack on the
presidential palace perpetrated by 31 and 32 Moira Katadromon LOK units with
the help of 21 Epilarhia Anagnoriseos tanks reconnaissance unit.[78]
In
1944, the Swedes worked with Finnish Intelligence to set up a stay-behind
network of agents within Finland to keep track of post-war activities in that
country. While this network was allegedly never put in place, Finnish codes, SIGINT
equipment and documents were brought to Sweden and apparently exploited until
the 1980s.[79]
In
1945, Interior Minister Yrjö Leino
exposed a secret stay-behind army which was closed down (so called Weapons Cache Case).
This operation was organized by Finnish general staff officers (without foreign
help) in 1944 to hide weapons in order to sustain a large-scale guerrilla warfare
in the event the Soviet Union tried to occupy Finland in the aftermath of the Continuation War.
See also Operation Stella
Polaris.
In
1991, the Swedish media claimed that a secret stay-behind army had existed in
neutral Finland
with an exile base in Stockholm.
Finnish Defence Minister Elisabeth Rehn
called the revelations "a fairy tale", adding cautiously "or at
least an incredible story, of which I know nothing."[28]
However, in his memoirs, former CIA director William Colby
described the setting-up of stay-behind armies in Scandinavian countries,
including Finland, with or without the assistance of local governments, to
prepare for a Soviet invasion.[46]
Several
events prior to Spain's 1982 membership in NATO have also been tied to Gladio:
In May 1976, a year after Franco's
death, two left-wing Carlist
members were shot down by far-right terrorists, among whom were Gladio
operative Stefano Delle
Chiaie and members of the Argentine
Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A), demonstrating connections between Gladio and the
South American "Dirty War".
This incident became known as the Montejurra
massacre.[80]
According to a report by the Italian CESIS
(Executive Committee for Intelligence and Security Services), Carlo Cicuttini
(who took part in the 1972 Peteano bombing in Italy alongside Vincenzo
Vinciguerra), participated in the 1977 Massacre of
Atocha in Madrid, killing five people (including
several lawyers), members of the Workers'
Commissions trade-unions closely linked with the Spanish Communist
Party. Cicuttini was naturalized Spanish and exiled in
Spain since 1972 (date of the Peteano bombing)[81]
Following
Andreotti's 1990 revelations, Adolfo Suárez,
Spain's first democratically elected Prime minister after Franco's death,
denied ever having heard of Gladio.[82]
President of the Spanish government in 1981-82, during the transition to
democracy, Calvo Sotelo
stated that Spain had not been informed of Gladio when it entered NATO. Asked
about Gladio's relations to Franquist Spain,
he said that such a network was not necessary under Franco,
since "the regime itself was Gladio."[83]
According
to General Fausto Fortunato, head of Italian SISMI
from 1971 to 1974, France and the US had backed Spain's entrance to Gladio, but
Italy would have opposed its veto to it. Following Andreotti's revelations,
however, Narcís Serra,
Spanish Minister of Defense, opened up an investigation concerning Spain's
links to Gladio.[84][85]
Furthermore, Canarias 7 newspaper
revealed, quoting former Gladio agent Alberto Volo, who had a role in the revelations
of the existence of the network in 1990, that a Gladio meeting had been
organized in August 1991 in the Gran Canaria island.[86]
Alberto Vollo also declared that as a Gladio operative, he had received
trainings in Maspalomas,
in the Gran Canaria
island between the 1960s and the 1970s.[87]
El País
daily also revealed that the Gladio organization was suspected of having used
former NASA
installations in Maspalomas,
in the Gran Canaria
island, in the 1970s.[88]
André
Moyen, former Belgian secret agent, also declared that Gladio had operated in
Spain.[89]
He said that Gladio had bases in Madrid, Barcelona, San Sebastián and the
Canarias islands.
In
1951, CIA agent William Colby,
based at the CIA station in Stockholm, supported the training of stay-behind
armies in neutral Sweden
and Finland
and in the NATO members Norway
and Denmark.
In 1953, the police arrested right winger Otto Hallberg and discovered the
preparations for the Swedish stay-behind army. Hallberg was set free and
charges against him were dropped.[28]
In
Switzerland, a secret army named P26 was discovered, by coincidence months
before Giulio Andreotti's October 1990 revelations. After the "secret
files scandal" (Fichenaffäre),
Swiss parliamentaries started investigating the Defense Department in the summer
of 1990. According to Felix Würsten of the ETH Zurich,
"P26 was not directly involved in the network of NATO's secret armies but
it had close contact to MI6."[90]
Daniele Ganser (ETH Zurich) wrote in the Intelligence
and National Security review that "following the discovery of
the stay-behind armies across Western Europe in late 1990, Swiss and
international security researchers found themselves confronted with two
clear-cut questions: Did Switzerland also operate a secret stay-behind army?
And if yes, was it part of NATO's stay-behind network? The answer to the first
question is clearly yes... The answer to the second question remains
disputed..."[91]
Swiss
Major Hans von Dach
published in 1958 Der totale Widerstand,
Kleinkriegsanleitung für jedermann ("Total Resistance,"
Bienne, 1958) concerning guerrilla warfare, a book of 180 pages about passive
and active resistance to a foreign invasion, including detailed instructions on
sabotage, clandestinity, methods to dissimulate weapons, struggle against
police moles, etc.[92]
In
1990, Colonel Herbert Alboth, a former commander of the Swiss secret stay-behind
army P26 declared in a confidential letter to the Defence Department that he
was willing to reveal "the whole truth". He was later found in his
house, stabbed with his own military bayonet. The detailed parliamentary report
on the Swiss secret army was presented to the public on November 17, 1990.[28]
According to The Guardian,
"P26 was backed by P27, a private foreign intelligence agency funded
partly by the government, and by a special unit of Swiss army intelligence
which had built up files on nearly 8,000 "suspect persons" including
"leftists", "bill stickers", "Jehovah's witnesses",
people with "abnormal tendencies" and anti-nuclear
demonstrators. On November 14, the Swiss government hurriedly dissolved P26 — the
head of which, it emerged, had been paid £100,000 a year."[75]
In
1991, a report by Swiss magistrate Pierre Cornu was released by the Swiss
defence ministry. It said that P26 was without "political or legal
legitimacy", and described the group's collaboration with British secret
services as "intense". "Unknown to the Swiss government, British
officials signed agreements with the organisation, called P26, to provide
training in combat, communications, and sabotage. The latest agreement was
signed in 1987... P26 cadres participated regularly in training exercises in
Britain... British advisers — possibly from the SAS — visited secret training
establishments in Switzerland." P26 was led by Efrem Cattelan, known to
British intelligence.[76]
In
a 2005 conference presenting Daniele Ganser's research on Gladio, Hans Senn,
General Chief of Staff of the Swiss Army
between 1977 and 1980, explained how he was informed of the existence of a
secret organisation in the middle of his term of office. According to him, it
already became clear in 1980 in the wake of the Schilling/Bachmann affair that
there was also a secret group in Switzerland. But former MP, Helmut Hubacher,
President of the Social Democratic
Party from 1975 to 1990, declared that although it had
been known that "special services" existed within the army, as a
politician he never at any time could have known that the secret army P26 was
behind this. Hubacher pointed out that the President of the parliamentary
investigation into P26 (PUK-EMD), the right-wing politician from Appenzell and
member of the Council of States for that Canton, Carlo Schmid,
had suffered "like a dog" during the commission's investigations.
Carlo Schmid declared to the press: "I was shocked that something like that
is at all possible," and said to the press he was glad to leave the
"conspirational atmosphere" which had weighted upon him like a
"black shadow" during the investigations.[93]
Hubacher found it especially disturbing that, apart from its official mandate
of organizing resistance in case of a Soviet invasion, P26 had also a mandate
to become active should the left succeed in achieving a parliamentary majority.[90]
Three
Freedom of
Information Act (FOIA) requests have been filed to the
CIA, which has rejected them with the Glomar response:
"The CIA can neither confirm nor deny the existence or non-existence of
records responsive to your request." One request was filed by the National Security
Archive in 1991; another by the Italian Senate
commission headed by Senator Giovanni
Pellegrino in 1995 concerning Gladio and Aldo Moro's
murder; the last one in 1996, by Oliver Rathkolb, of Vienna university, for the
Austrian government, concerning the secret stay-behind armies after a discovery
of an arms-cache.[28]
Furthermore,
the US State
Department published a communiqué in January 2006
which, while confirming the existence of stay-behind armies, in general, and
the presence of the "Gladio" stay-behind unit in Italy, in
particular, with the purpose of aiding resistance in the event of Soviet
aggression directed Westward, from the Warsaw Pact, dismissed claims of any
United States ordered, supported, or authorized skullduggery by stay-behind
units. In fact, it claims that, on the contrary, the accusations of
US-sponsored "false flag" operations are rehashed former Soviet disinformation
based on documents that the Soviets themselves forged; specifically the
researchers are alleged to have been influenced by the Westmoreland Field
Manual, whose forged nature was confirmed by former
KGB operatives, following the end of the Cold War. However since then counter
sources from within gladio and the CIA have admitted its authenticity. The
alleged Soviet-authored forgery, disseminated in the 1970s, explicitly
formulated the need for a "strategy of tension" involving violent
attacks blamed on radical left-wing groups in order to convince allied
governments of the need for counter-action. It also rejected a Communist Greek
journalist's allegations made in December 2005 (See above).[64]
Whilst
the existence of a "stay-behind" organization such as Gladio was
disputed, prior to its confirmation by Giulio Andreotti[citation
needed], with some skeptics
describing it as a conspiracy theory,
several high ranking politicians in NATO countries have made statements
appearing to confirm the existence of something like what is described:
Former
Italian prime minister Giulio Andreotti ("Gladio
had been necessary during the days of the Cold War but, that in view of the
collapse of the East Bloc, Italy would suggest to NATO that the organisation was
no longer necessary.")[citation
needed]
Former
French minister of defense Jean-Pierre
Chevènement ("a
structure did exist, set up at the beginning of the 1950s, to enable
communications with a government that might have fled abroad in the event of
the country being occupied.").[citation
needed]
Former
Greek defence minister, Yannis Varvitsiotis ("local
commandos and the CIA set up a branch of the network in 1955 to organise
guerrilla resistance to any communist invader")[citation
needed]
As
noted above, the US has now acknowledged the existence of Operation Gladio.[citation
needed]
NATO's
Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe (Contemporary
Security Studies), by Daniele Ganser, 2005, ISBN 0714685003}
Puppetmasters:
The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy,by Philip Willan, 2002, ISBN 0595246974]
Alan
Francovich , BBC Documentary Gladio
(1992 three-part BBC documentary)
Michele Placido,
Romanzo Criminale (2005,
concerning the strategy of tension and the Banda della
Magliana)
Renzo
Martinelli, Five
Moons Plaza at the Internet Movie
Database (Piazza
delle cinque lune) (2003)
Conspirator:
The Story of Licio Gelli at the Internet Movie
Database (2009)
German
documentary Gladio - Geheimarmeen in Europa
(Germany, 2010, 85mn), SWR
© tvschoenfilm, Directors: Frank Gutermuth, Wolfgang Schoen
Turkish
fiction movie "Kurtlar Vadisi Gladyo"
Joe
Wright, Hanna
at the Internet Movie
Database (2011) CIA uses neo-nazi forces to capture a
fugitive assassin
A
precise analogue of Operation Gladio was described in the 1949 fiction novel
"An Affair of State" by Pat Frank.[94]
In Frank's version, U.S. State Dept officers recruit a stay-behind network in
Hungary to fight an insurgency against the Soviet Union after the Soviet Union
launches an attack on and captures Western Europe.
John
Douglas-Gray in his thriller 'The Novak Legacy' ISBN
978-0-7552-1321-4
Stay-behind
Fifth column
1.
^ Çelik, Serdar (February/March 1994). "Turkey's
Killing Machine: The Contra-Guerrilla Force". Kurdistan Report 17. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/017.html. Retrieved 2008-09-20. quoting
Bülent Ecevit
from "a newspaper interview" (in Turkish). Milliyet.
1990-11-28. "Özel Harp Dairesinin nerede bulunduğunu sordum 'Amerikan
Askerî Yardım Heyetiyle aynı binada' yanıtını
aldım."
2.
^ Haberman, Clyde (1990-11-16). "EVOLUTION IN
EUROPE; Italy Discloses Its Web Of Cold War Guerrillas".
New
York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE5D61031F935A25752C1A966958260&sec=&spon=&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
"Germany, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Greece and Luxembourg have all
acknowledged that they maintained Gladio-style networks to prepare guerrilla
fighters to leap into action in the event of a Warsaw Pact invasion. Many
worked under the code name Stay Behind. Greece called its operation Red
Sheepskin.
News reports in recent days assert that similar programs
have also existed in Britain, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Turkey and
Denmark, and even in neutral countries like Switzerland and Sweden."
3.
^ Belgian
parliamentary report concerning the stay-behind network,
named "Enquête parlementaire sur l'existence en Belgique d'un réseau de
renseignements clandestin international" or "Parlementair onderzoek
met betrekking tot het bestaan in België van een clandestien internationaal
inlichtingenetwerk" pg. 17-22
4.
^
a b c d e f Ganser, Daniele.
"Terrorism
in Western Europe: An Approach to NATO’s Secret Stay-Behind ArmiesPDF (162 KB),"
Whitehead Journal
of Diplomacy and International Relations,
South Orange NJ, Winter/Spring 2005, Vol. 6, No. 1.
5.
^
a b c d Vulliamy, Ed (1990-12-05). "Secret
agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political
'destabilisation'". The Guardian. http://www.cambridgeclarion.org/press_cuttings/vinciguerra.p2.etc_graun_5dec1990.html.
6.
^ Fitchett, Joseph. (1990-11-13) "Paris Says it
Joined NATO 'Resistance'," International
Herald Tribune
7.
^ Duraud, Bernard (2005-10-07). "La critique
- Récit d'un brigadiste" (in French). L'Humanité. http://www.humanite.fr/2005-10-07_International_La-critique-Recit-d-un-brigadiste.
8.
^ O’Shaughnessy, Hugh. "Gladio: Europe’s Secret
Networks," The Observer,
18 November 1990.
9.
^ "Gelli arrest
is another chapter in Vatican bank scandal". American Atheists.
1998-09-16. http://www.atheists.org/flash.line/vatican2.htm. Retrieved February 2006.
10. ^ See for ex. links between Italian neofascist
terrorist Stefano
delle Chiaie, whom was protected by the Italian SISMI,
and the DINA;
including assassination attempts on Bernardo Leighton,
Carlos Altamirano,
Andrés Pascal
Allende (Salvador Allende's
nephew), etc. Delle Chiaie also worked with Argentine death-squad Triple
A and Bolivian dictator Hugo Banzer.
Las relaciones
secretas entre Pinochet, Franco y la P2 , Conspiración para matar,
Sergio Sorin, February 4, 1999
11. ^ "Secret Cold-War Network
Group Hid Arms, Belgian Member Says". Brussels: Reuters. 1990-11-13.
12.
^ Pedrick, Clare; Lardner,
George Jr (1990-11-14). "CIA
Organized Secret Army in Western Europe". Washington
Post. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/8457082.html?dids=8457082:8457082&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=NOV+14%2C+1990&author=Pedrick%2C+Clare%3B+Lardner%2C+George+Jr&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=CIA+Organized+Secret+Army+in+Western+Europe&pqatl=google. Retrieved 2008-07-31.
13. ^ Vulliamy, Ed (1990-08-03).
"Grieving Bologna looks back in anger on bombing". The Guardian.
14. ^ Patrice, Claude (1990-11-07). "ITALIE :
face aux interrogations de l'opinion M. Andreotti lève le voile sur le passé
d'une structure armée parallèle patronnée par l'OTAN et la CIA"
(in French). Le Monde. http://www.lemonde.fr/cgi-bin/ACHATS/506729.html.
15.
^
a b Gardais, Pierre (1990-11-29). "Le chef du
gouvernement italien a dû reconnaître son existence"
(in French). L'Humanité. http://www.humanite.fr/1990-11-29_Articles_-Le-chef-du-gouvernement-italien-a-du-reconnaitre-son-existence. Retrieved 2008-08-21.
"Selon les cas, on excitait ou en empêchait le terrorisme d’extrême gauche
ou d’extrême droite" [dead link]
(English
translation)
16.
^
a b Willan, Philip.
"Paolo Emilio
Taviani", The Guardian,
June 21, 2001. (Obituary.)
17.
^
a b Herman, Edward S (June 1991).
"Hiding Western Terror". Nation:
21–22.
18. ^ Barbera, Myriam. "Gladio: et la
France?," L'Humanité,
November 10, 1990 (French).
19. ^ "Caso Moro.
Morire di Gladio" (in Italian). La Voce della Campania. January 2005. http://www.lavocedellevoci.it/inchieste1.php?id=32.
20. ^ Gladio e caso
Moro: Arconte su morte Ferraro, "La Nuova
Sardegna" (Italian)
21.
^
a b Pallister, David.
"How M16 and SAS
Join In," The Guardian,
December 5, 1990
22. ^ Willan, Philip. "US 'supported
anti-left terror in Italy'", The Guardian,
June 24, 2000.
23. ^ CIA knew, but
didn't stop bombings in Italy – report. CBC
24.
^
a b Willan, Philip. Terrorists 'helped
by CIA' to stop rise of left in Italy, The Guardian,
March 26, 2001.
25. ^ "Protest marches as the
Milan bomb outrage five go free". The
Guardian. 1985-08-03.
26. ^ "Neo-fascists Cleared of
1973 Bomb Attack for Second Time". ANSA. 2004-12-01.
27. ^ "CIA rejects accusation
of involvement in bombings in Italy". AFP. 2000-08-04.
28.
^
a b c d e f g h i j k Chronology,
Secret Warfare: Operation Gladio and NATO's
Stay-Behind Armies, ETH Zurich
29.
^
a b c "Strage di
Piazza Fontana spunta un agente USA". La Repubblica.
1998-02-11. http://www.repubblica.it/online/fatti/fontana/fontana/fontana.html. Retrieved 2006-02-02. (With original
documents, including juridical sentences and the report of the Italian
Commission on Terrorism (Italian)
30. ^ Richards, Charles
(1990-12-01). "Gladio is
still opening wounds". The Independent:
p. 12. http://www.cambridgeclarion.org/press_cuttings/gladio.parliamentary.committee_indep_1dec1990.html. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
31.
^
a b Charles Richards
& Simon Jones, "Skeletons start emerging from Europe's closet," The Independent,
November 16, 1990, quoted in (Statewatch 1991).
32. ^ Agnew, Paddy. "Report of
NATO-sponsored secret army shocks Italy," The Irish Times,
on November 15, 1990 pg. 8. Quoted by (Statewatch 1991).
33. ^ Willan, Philip. "Moro's ghost
haunts political life", The Guardian,
May 9, 2003.
34. ^ Vulliamy, Ed. The
Guardian, January 16, 1991. Quoted by (Statewatch 1991).
35. ^ Translated from
Bologna massacre Association of Victims Italian website
Original page
(Italian)
36. ^ Ganser, Daniele (2005-04-07). "The Secret Side
of International Relations: An approach to NATO’s stay-behind armies in Western
Europe" (PDF). Political Studies Association
Annual Conference. http://www.psa.ac.uk/journals/pdf/5/2005/Ganser.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-27.
37. ^ "Italy probes
'parallel police'". BBC News.
July 1, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4640247.stm. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
38. ^ Philips, John (2005-07-05). "Up to 200
Italian police 'ran parallel anti-terror force'".
The Independent. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4158/is_20050705/ai_n14681859. Retrieved 2008-07-30. [dead link]
39. ^ Selvatici, Franca
(2005-07-02). "Macché
Gladio bis, le autorità sapevano Gaetano Saya si difende"
(in Italian). La Repubblica. http://www.repubblica.it/2005/g/sezioni/cronaca/polipala/nogladio/nogladio.html. (Google
translation available)
40. ^ Ceccarelli, Filippo
(2005-07-03). "Gladio, P2,
falangisti l'Italia che sogna il golpe" (in
Italian). La Repubblica. http://www.repubblica.it/2005/g/sezioni/cronaca/polipala/sognigolpe/sognigolpe.html.
41. ^ Imarisio, Marco (2005-07-03). "Così
reclutavano: "Facciamo un'altra Gladio""
(in Italian). Corriere della
Sera. http://www.corriere.it/Primo_Piano/Cronache/2005/07_Luglio/02/imarisio.shtml.
42. ^ Official site of
the Belgian Permanent Committee for the Control of Intelligence Services
See "history" section in the "Presentation" part.
43. ^ Kwitny, Jonathan (1992-04-06).
"The C.I.A.'s
Secret Armies in Europe". The Nation: pp. 446–447. http://www.thenation.com/archive/detail/9203303730. Quoted in
Ganser's "Terrorism in Western Europe".
44.
^ Cogan, Charles (2007). "'Stay-Behind' in
France: Much ado about nothing?". Journal
of Strategic Studies 30 (6): 937–954. doi:10.1080/01402390701676493.
45. ^ Daeninckx, Didier. "Du Temple Solaire
au réseau Gladio, en passant par Politica Hermetica...,"
February 27, 2002.
46.
^
a b Colby, William.
"A Scandinavian Spy,"
Chapter 3. (Former CIA director 's memoirs.)
47.
^
a b Lee, Christopher. CIA Ties With
Ex-Nazis Shown, Washington
Post, June 7, 2006.
48. ^ "Alleged Secret
Organization". The Times.
1952-10-09.
49.
^
a b "'Partisans' in Germany". The Times. 1952-10-11.
50.
^
a b c d e Norton-Taylor,
Richard and David Gow. Secret Italian
Unit," The Guardian,
November 17, 1990
51. ^ "Ban In Hesse On Youth
Union". The Times.
1953-01-10.
52. ^ "Further Ban On Union Of
German Youth". The Times.
1953-01-15.
53. ^ Daniele Ganser: http://blogs.shu.edu/diplomacy/files/archives/08_ganser27.pdf
Terrorism in Western Europe: An Approach to
NATO’s Secret Stay-Behind Armies The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy
and International Relations
54. ^ "Police say suspect
committed suicide". United Press International. 1981-11-01.
55.
^
a b c Why Israel's
capture of Eichmann caused panic at the CIA, The Guardian,
June 8, 2006
56. ^ Opening of CIA
Records under Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act, May 8,
2002 NARA
communique (English)
57. ^ Peter Murtagh, The
Rape of Greece. The King, the Colonels, and the Resistance (London,
Simon & Schuster, 1994), p.29, quoted by Daniele Ganser (2005), p.213
58. ^ Ganser (2005), pp.213-214 (his quote)
59. ^ Philip Agee
and Louis Wolf, Dirty Work: The CIA in
Western Europe (Secaucus: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1978), p.154 (quoted by
Daniele Ganser (2005) p.216
60. ^ "Due to the direct involvement of the Hellenic
Raiding Force the Greek military coup has been labelled 'a Gladio coup'."
(NATO's
Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe
by Daniele Ganser, p. 221.) "In Greece, where it was given the code-name,
Sheepskin, a cell was set up by the CIA in the 1950s but was dismantled in
1988, according to the government. Officers in the underground unit were
involved in the Colonels' coup in 1967." (Richard
Norton-Taylor, "The Gladio File:
did fear of communism throw West into the arms of terrorists?",
in The Guardian,
December 5, 1990)
61. ^ NATO's
Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe
by Daniele Ganser, p. 221.
62. ^ NATO's
Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe
by Daniele Ganser, p. 223.
63. ^ "NATO's secret
network 'also operated in France'", The Guardian,
November 14, 1990, pg.6
64.
^
a b c "Misinformation
about "Gladio/Stay Behind" Networks Resurfaces".
United States Department of State. http://usinfo.state.gov/media/Archive/2006/Jan/20-127177.html.
65. ^ "'MIVD
verzwijgt wapenvondst in onderwereld'". Nu.nl.
2007-09-09. http://www.nu.nl/news/1228111/13/%27MIVD_verzwijgt_wapenvondst_in_onderwereld%27.html. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
66. ^ "GLADIO IN
NEDERLAND". http://reporter.kro.nl/uitzendingen/2007/0909_gladio_in_nederland/intro.aspx. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
67. ^ Olav Riste
(1999). The Norwegian Intelligence Service:
1945-1970. Routledge. ISBN 0714649007.
68. ^ "Secret Anti-Communist
Network Exposed in Norway in 1978". Associated Press. 1990-11-14.
69. ^ (Ganser 2005,
p. 119) Quotes Joao Paulo Guerra, "Gladio
actuou em Portugal", in O
Jornal, 16 November 1990 and Stuart Christie,
Stefano delle Chiaie, London,
1984, p.30.
70. ^ David Lampe, The
Last Ditch: Britain's Resistance Plans against the Nazis Cassell
1968 ISBN 0-304-92519-5
71. ^ Dan van der Vat. "Obituary: General
Sir Anthony Farrar-Hockley," Guardian. 15 March 2006
72. ^ Gerardo Serravalle, Gladio (Rome: Edizione Associate, ISBN 88-267-0145-8,
1991), p.78-79 (Italian)
73.
^ Belgian Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into
Gladio, quoted by Daniele Ganser (2005)
74.
^
a b http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?sid=384
75.
^
a b c Richard
Norton-Taylor, "The Gladio File:
did fear of communism throw West into the arms of terrorists?",
in The Guardian,
December 5, 1990
76.
^
a b Norton-Taylor,
Richard. UK trained secret
Swiss force" in The Guardian,
September 20, 1991, pg.7.
77. ^ http://www.makarios.eu/cgibin/hweb?-A=3664,printer.html&-V=makarios
78. ^ Official list of the dead of the coup from the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the republic of Cyprus. http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/mfa2006.nsf/All/22F188281F443892C22574E5003E1F85/$file/%CE%A0%CE%A1%CE%91%CE%9E%CE%99%CE%9A%CE%9F%CE%A0%CE%97%CE%9C%CE%91.xls?OpenElement
Dead coupists at the presidential palace area are from LOK units 31 MK and 32MK
and tanks unit 21 EAN
79. ^ C. G. McKay, Bengt Beckman, Swedish Signal Intelligence, Frank Cass
Publishers, 2002, p. 202
80. ^ Crimes of
Montejurra (Good Google translation)
81. ^ Un informe oficial
italiano implica en el crimen de Atocha al 'ultra' Cicuttini, relacionado con
Gladio, El País,
December 2, 1990 (Spanish)
82. ^ Suárez afirma que
en su etapa de presidente nunca se habló de la red Gladio,
El País,
November 18, 1990 (Spanish)
83. ^ Calvo Sotelo
asegura que España no fue informada, cuando entró en la OTAN, de la existencia
de Gladio, El País,
November 21, 1990 (Spanish)
84. ^ Italia vetó la
entrada de España en Gladio, según un ex jefe del espionaje italiano,
El País,
November 17, 1990 (Spanish)
85. ^ Serra ordena
indagar sobre la red Gladio en España, El País,
November 16, 1990 (Spanish)
86. ^ La 'red Gladio'
continúa operando, según el ex agente Alberto Volo, El País,
August 19, 1991 (Spanish)
87. ^ El secretario de
la OTAN elude precisar si España tuvo relación con la red Gladio,
El País,
November 24, 1990 (Spanish)
88. ^ Indicios de que la
red Gladio utilizó una vieja estación de la NASA en Gran Canaria,
El País,
November 26, 1990 (Spanish)
89. ^ La red secreta de
la OTAN operaba en España, según un ex agente belga, El País,
November 14, 1990
90.
^
a b The Dark Side of
the West, Conference "Nato Secret Armies and
P26," ETH Zurich,
2005. Published 10 February 2005. Retrieved February 7, 2007.
91. ^ Ganser, Daniele. "The British Secret
Service in Neutral Switzerland: An Unfinished Debate on NATO's Cold War
Stay-behind Armies", published by the Intelligence and National Security review,
vol.20, n°4, December 2005, pp.553-580 ISSN 0268–4527 print 1743–9019 online.
92. ^ Major Hans von Dach,
1958. Der totale Widerstand...; Total Resistance reed. Paladin Press,
1992 ISBN
978-0-87364-021-3.
93. ^ "Schwarzer
Schatten" (in German). Der Spiegel
50: 194b–200a. 1990-12-10. http://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-13502168.html. Retrieved
2008-10-28. [verification
needed]
94. ^ Pat Frank.
An Affair of State. J. B.
Lippincott & Co. 1949
Operation Gladio
(BBC Timewatch, 1992) State-Sponsored Terrorism in Europe
BBC 2 Gladio - 1992 tree part Documentary Video
Statewatch
(January 1991). "Operation Gladio". http://www.thejohnfleming.com/gladio.html. Retrieved 2008-07-30
Secret
Warfare : Operation Gladio and NATO's Stay-Behind Armies.
Edited by Daniele Ganser and Christian Nuenlist. 29 Nov 2004. Parallel History
Project, ETH
Zürich
Ganser, Daniele (2005). NATO's Secret Armies: Operation GLADIO and Terrorism in Western Europe.
Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 0-7146-8500-3 (resume)
Daniele
Ganser, Les Armées Secrètes de l'OTAN,
Gladio et Terrorisme en Europe de l’Ouest, ISBN
978-2-917112-00-7 éditions Demi-Lune, 2007. Same book
as above, in French. (a quick resume in French)
William Colby
(former CIA director), Honorable Men
(1978) extract
David
Hoffman, "The Oklahoma City
bombing and the Politics of Terror",
1998 (chapter 14 online
on strategy of
tension
Giovanni
Fasanella and Claudio Sestieri with Giovanni Pellegrino, "Segreto di Stato. La verità da Gladio al caso
Moro", Einaudi, 2000 (see civic website of
Bologna) (Italian)
Jan
Willems, Gladio, 1991, EPO-Dossier,
Bruxelles (ISBN 2-87262-051-6).
(French)
Jens
Mecklenburg, Gladio. Die geheime
Terrororganisation der Nato, 1997, Elefanten Press Verlag GmbH,
Berlin (ISBN 3-88520-612-9).
(German)
Leo
A. Müller, Gladio. Das Erbe des kalten
Krieges, 1991, RoRoRo-Taschenbuch Aktuell no 12993 (ISBN 3499 129930).
(German)
Jean-François
Brozzu-Gentile, L’Affaire Gladio. Les
réseaux secrets américains au cœur du terrorisme en Europe, 1994,
Albin Michel, Paris (ISBN 2-226-06919-4).
(French)
Anna
Laura Braghetti, Paola Tavella, Le
Prisonnier. 55 jours avec Aldo Moro, 1999 (translated from Italian: Il Prigioniero), Éditions Denoël, Paris (ISBN 2-207-24888-7)
(Italian)/(French)
Regine
Igel, Andreotti. Politik zwischen
Geheimdienst und Mafia, 1997, Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung GmbH,
Munich (ISBN 3-7766-1951-1).
(German)
Arthur
E. Rowse, "Gladio: The
Secret U.S. War to Subvert Italian Democracy" in Covert Action
#49, Summer of 1994.
Anti-Fascist
Action (AFA), "Staying Behind: NATO's Terror Network" in Fighting Talk #11, May 1995.
François
Vitrani, "L’Italie, un Etat de 'souveraineté limitée' ?", in Le Monde
diplomatique, December 1990. (French)
Patrick
Boucheron, "L'affaire
Sofri : un procès en sorcellerie?", in L'Histoire
magazine, n°217 (January 1998) Concerning Carlo Ginzburg's
book The judge and the historian
about Adriano Sofri
(French)
"Les procès
Andreotti en Italie" ("The Andreotti
trials in Italy") by Philippe Foro, published by University
of Toulouse II, Groupe de recherche
sur l'histoire immédiate (Study group on immediate history). (French)
Angelo
Paratico "Gli assassini del karma" Robin editore, Roma, 2003.
Categories:
Hidden
categories:
European
Parliament resolution on Gladio European Parliament
Joint
resolution replacing B3-2021, 2058, 2068, 2078 and 2087/90
A. having regard to the revelation by several European
governments of the existence for 40 years of a clandestine parallel
intelligence and armed operations organization in several Member States of the
Community,
B. whereas for over 40 years this organization has
escaped all democratic controls and has been run by the secret services of the
states concerned in collaboration with NATO,
C. fearing the danger that such clandestine network
may have interfered illegally in the internal political affairs of Member
States or may still do so,
D. whereas in certain Member States military secret
services (or uncontrolled branches thereof) were involved in serious cases of
terrorism and crime as evidenced by, various judicial inquiries,
E. whereas these organizations operated and continue
to operate completely outside the law since they are not subject to any
parliamentary control and frequently those holding the highest government and
constitutional posts are kept in the dark as to these matters,
F. whereas the various 'Gladio' organizations have at
their disposal independent arsenals and military ressources which give them an
unknown strike potential, thereby jeopardizing the democratic structures of
the countries in which they are operating or have been operating,
G. greatly concerned at the existence of
decision-making and operational bodies which are not subject to any form of
democratic control and are of a completely clandestine nature at a time when
greater Community cooperation in the field of security is a constant subject
of discussion,
1. Condemns
the clandestine creation of manipulative and operational networks and Calls
for a full investigation into the nature, structure, aims and all other
aspects of these clandestine organizations or any splinter groups, their use
for illegal interference in the internal political affairs of the countries
concerned, the problem of terrorism in Europe and the possible collusion of
the secret services of Member States or third countries;
2. Protests
vigorously at the assumption by certain US military personnel at SHAPE and in
NATO of the right to encourage the establishment in Europe of a clandestine
intelligence and operation network;
3. Calls on
the governments of the Member States to dismantle all clandestine military and
paramilitary networks;
4. Calls on
the judiciaries of the countries in which the presence of such military
organizations has been ascertained to elucidate fully their composition and
modus operandi and to clarify any action they may have taken to destabilize
the democratic structure of the Member States;
5. Requests
all the Member States to take the necessary measures, if necessary by
establishing parliamentary committees of inquiry, to draw up a complete list
of organizations active in this field, and at the same time to monitor their
links with the respective state intelligence services and their links, if any,
with terrorist action groups and/or other illegal practices;
6. Calls on
the Council of
Ministers to provide full information on the
activities of these secret intelligence and operational services;
7. Calls on
its competent committee to consider holding a hearing in order to clarify the
role and impact of the 'Gladio' organization and any similar bodies;
8.
Instructs its President to forward this resolution to the Commission,
the Council, the Secretary-General of NATO, the governments of the Member
States and the United States Government."
Retrieved
from "http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=European_Parliament_resolution_on_Gladio&oldid=2319468"
Categories:
Hidden
category:
Khadafi, Baroudi and Hussein page index (Go to the top of
this page):
1.
Farzat Baroudi
Page-1 identified
as ex-Libyan president Moamar Khadafi
2.
The original
additional photos of Dr. Farzat Baroudi
lookalike
3.
Farzat Baroudi
Page-2
4.
Ex-Iraqi
president Mohsen Abdel Hamid
alias Dr. Farzat Baroudi
in a new disguise
5.
Bodyguards of ex-Libyan president Moamar Khadafi
alias Dr. Farzat Baroudi
a pattern for men disguised as women
6.
Germany energy
companies alias second world war allies in Libya
7.
Gladio the
hidden NATO military
intelligence alias a vicious terrorist group within my
fake family (this page)
8.
Kaddafi’s height
as a mean of recognizing Moamar Khadafi’s
identities!!!
9.
The color skin
of Moamar Khadafi
is a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
10.
The finger nails
of Moamar Khadafi
are a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
11.
The various
locations of the facial mole of Moamar Khadafi
are a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
12.
The various eyes
of Moamar Khadafi
as a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
13.
The cloths
as distraction of the multi person’s identity of Moamar Khadafi
is a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
14.
The various noses
of Moamar Khadafi
as a Hollywood
style disguises and makeup!!
15.
Moamar Khadafy
16.
Saddam Hussein
the ex-Iraqi president
![[edit] Spain](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Special_forces_command.gif){kind=link}